History of the Curling Iron

History of the curling iron. Is there such a thing or is the curling iron just a modern invention? Each generation is the same. We think we have invented something new when perhaps all we have done is to modify "old inventions" by applying modern technology. Let us begin to investigate the history of the curling iron or, as it is also known, the curling tong.

Let us begin with the definition of a curling iron. It is a tool, a cylindrical metal appliance, used to change the structure of the hair by applying heat to a lock of hair that has been curled around it. It is natural to think with a modern mind and assume that the heat is generated by electricity. However, the curling iron goes way back before the introduction of electricity.

History

We only have to look at carvings from the ancient world to see that people cared about the style of their hair and that a popular style involved creating curls. Babylonian and Assyrian men dyed their hair and square beards black and crimped and curled them with curling irons. Persian nobles also curled their hair and beards, quite often staining them.

Egyptian nobles, men and women, cropped their hair close but later, for coolness and cleanliness in their hot climate, shaved their heads. On ceremonial occasions, for protection from the sun, they wore wigs. The wigs would be short and curly or long and full of curls or braids. The Science Museum has an example of curling tongs used by rich Egyptians to prepare their wigs.

In classical Greece it is known that the upper classes used curling irons.

Through time there have been many methods devised to curl hair and to keep the curl in place. For example, in 1906 Charles L. Nessler, a German hairdresser working in London, applied a borax paste and curled hair with an iron to produce the first permanent waves. This costly process took twelve hours. Eight years later, Eugene Sutter adapted the method by creating a dryer containing twenty heaters to do the job of waving more efficiently. Sutter was followed by Gaston Boudou, who modified Sutter's dryer and invented an automatic roller. By 1920, Rambaud, a Paris beautician, had perfected a system of curling and drying permed hair for softer, looser curls by using an electric hot-air dryer, an innovation of the period made by the Racine Universal Motor Company of Racine, Wisconsin. A significant breakthrough came in 1945, when French chemist Eugene Schueller of L'Oréal laboratories combined the action of thioglycolic acid with hydrogen peroxide to produce the first cold permanent wave, which was cheaper and faster than the earlier hot processes. To control the amount of curl, varying diameter of rods were used for rolling. Technology to hold hair in place was advanced in 1960 when L'Oréal laboratories introduced a polymer hair spray to serve as an invisible net.

The curling iron has remained a favoured tool in spite of all the chemical inventions. We have moved on from the metal rods heated by insertion into hot coals or heating on gas or electric stoves. With no control of the heat of the iron there must have been many cases of singed hair, not to mention burnt fingers and scalps! Modern day styles demand more control and flexibility of hair style with hair looking loose rather than "glued into place". Electrically heated and electronically controlled irons and tongs are now available. The barrels come in varying sizes enabling a tight curl or loose falling curl finish. Some have a smooth easy-glide ceramic barrel to create a super smooth finish and you can also purchase drop curl hair tongs with a cone shaped tong to create loose, tumbling waves and tousled curls. The fluctuation in hair styles from curly to straight and back again means manufacturers will continue to dream up new innovations to attract both professional hair stylists and the consumer.

So who "invented" the curling iron? Inevitably you find many references to "invented" and "patented by" or "introduced by". The original inventor is lost in the mists of time but examples of the previous sentence are:

In1866, Hiram Maxim, who designed the machine gun bearing his name, applied for and obtained the first of many patents at age 26 for a hair-curling iron.

Four years later in 1890 two Frenchmen, Maurice Lentheric and Marcel Grateau, used hot-air drying and heated curling tongs to make deep, long-lasting Marcel waves.

The Straightening comb however, is actually credited as first being invented by the late 19th century French hairdresser, Marcel Grateau, who also, invented the curling iron, the permanent wave and later the Gillette safety razor which became popular in Germany after World War I.

In related developments, Rene Lelievre and Roger Lemoine invented an electric curling iron in 1959.

The pressing/curling iron was patented by Theora Stephens on October 21, 1980.

In August 1987 the Wahl Clipper Corporation introduced to the professional market the ZeeCurl. This flat-barrel curling iron gave stylists a tool to create new hairstyles with Z-shaped curls, adding texture and body to all types of hair. In 1988, FrenZee, the consumer version, was added.

There is little doubt that fashion will demand and dictate new innovations to ensure continuation of the history of the curling iron.

Rodger Cresswell

History of the Curling Iron

Rodger is Managing Director of Avondale Consultancy Limited and Consultant to JC Regali

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The History of Christmas Ornaments

In A.D. 336, an early Roman calendar first mentions December 25 as the date of Jesus' birth. This date was likely influenced by the year-end pagan festivals to celebrate the harvest. Celebrations included specially prepared meals, decorating of homes, gift-giving and singing. Gradually, pagan traditions became a part of the Christian celebrations. Most Christmas traditions such as the Christmas tree and ornaments came from central Europe. The earliest German Christmas trees were decorated with food; apples, onions, pears, nuts, candies, and fruits were placed on a tree.

In the 1800s, glass ornaments were first made in the Lauscha, Germany. This cottage industry involved the entire family. Generally, men did the glassblowing, women did the silvering and the children helped to paint and finish them. These beautiful new glass ornaments began to replace edible decorations.

History

In Victorian times, Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, a German, brought the tradition from Germany to his new home in England. Soon all of England was in on it.

In the 1840s, Europeans immigrating to North America brought with them their Christmas traditions. Prior to that time, Christmas was not widely celebrated in North America. As society became more prosperous, ornaments became larger in size and the colors become more vibrant to reflect the new wealth.

F.W. Woolworth was the first North American retailer to sell glass ornaments. The story goes that he was not too sure about this new product line. However, Woolworth changed his mind by 1890 when he was selling million worth of ornaments in his five-and-dime stores.

Until 1925, virtually all hand blown glass ornaments were manufactured in Lauscha, Germany. By 1935, more then 250 million Christmas ornaments were being imported to the United States. After WWII, the Lauscha area became a part of East Germany. Many glassblowers fled to West Germany and the industry declined. Around this time, Japan and Czechoslovakia began producing ornaments for the North American market

In the 1960's, glass ornaments went out of fashion when the aluminum tree adorned with ornaments of similar shape and color became the rage. Many traditional ornaments were thrown away during this period.

What to Look for in Antique Ornaments

If you're lucky enough to still have any vintage ornaments, hang on to them.

How to tell vintage versus new. Earlier ornaments were smaller than today's modern ornaments. They were usually done in soft colors with hand painted details. You'll notice that the paint may be faded or distressed in areas on vintage ornaments.

Hand blown versus machine made. Remove the stem from the base of the ornament. Ornaments that are hand blown will have an uneven base because the glass blower cannot make a clean break. Modern machine made ornaments will have a smooth even base.

Where to find vintage ornaments. Ebay, flea markets, church sales and garage sales are all good hunting grounds for vintage ornaments.

Prices

Prices can vary from - 0 depending on the ornament and where you buy it.

Symbolism

Fruit and vegetable shapes symbolize the harvest.

Birds represent the biblical messengers that bring God's love and peace to the world. Birds were also symbolic of good luck and good fortune.

Pickle shapes signify luck.

Fish shape is an early Christian symbol for Christ.

Reflectors ornaments (ornaments with geometric concave indentations) during Victorian times, were often called witches eyes and were placed on the Christmas tree to fend off any evil spirits.

Star shapes represent the Star of Bethlehem.

The History of Christmas Ornaments

Martin Swinton does antique appraisals and estate sales in Toronto, Canada. He has worked at an auction house, furniture restoration company and for ten years owned an antique shop. He does caning, cording and rushing repairs, teaches courses on antiques and appears at community events. He can be reached by visiting http://www.takeaboo.wordpress.com

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History Of Olive Trees

Olive trees, 'Olea europaea,' are the oldest fruit trees and certainly are one of the most important fruit trees in history. Olive tree culture has been closely connected to the rise and fall of Mediterranean empires and other advanced civilizations throughout the ages. Because olive trees offered wealth and future food supplies to established civilizations, the agricultural nations became stable societies, resulting from a secure expectation from past experience of an uninterrupted food and olive oil supply. This factor was a necessary requirement for population growth and increase. Dependable fruit production and olive oil production means that olive trees must exist in a stable society and a peaceful environment. That stability must extend for many years, since most ancient seedling olive trees required eight or more years before ever producing the first crop of fruit.

Productive orchards of olive trees meant that a foundation of the great empires of Greece and Rome had arisen and developed into complex economic and political forces. It is interesting to note that the historical decline of these empires corresponded to the destruction of their olive tree orchards that reduced the available supplies of olives, olive oil, olive wood, and olive soap. In connection with the destruction of olive orchards, it is interesting to note that in the Israeli wars with Palestine, 50,000 olive trees were destroyed by Israeli bulldozers. That act of agricultural destruction resulted in considerable anger and unrest along the Gaza strip and the West Bank, because the economic livelihood of many Palestinian farmers depended on their products from the uprooted olive trees. Additionally, the olive tree was historically a 'peace and goodwill' symbol, and when the olive trees were leveled near the city of Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus and the "Cradle of Biblical History," that elimination of olive trees seemed like a deliberate provocation to end the 'peace' with the Palestinian settlers and farmers.

History

Medical properties of olive oil were reported by many ancient Greek writers and philosophers, their importance in creating nutritional benefits and wealth for Greek citizens continues abundantly today--some Greek olive tree orchards containing a million or more trees. Aristotle wrote extensively about the accepted methods of successfully growing olive trees.

Greek mythology records that Athena, the Goddess of wisdom and peace, struck her magic spear into the Earth, and it turned into an olive tree, thus, the location where the olive tree appeared and grew was named Athens, Greece, in honor of the Goddess, Athena. Local legend tells us that the original olive tree still stands growing after many centuries at the ancient sacred site. Citizens still claim that all Greek olive trees originated from rooted cuttings that were grown from that original olive tree. Homer claimed in his writings that the ancient olive tree growing in Athens was already 10,000 years old. Homer stated that Greek courts sentenced people to death if they destroyed an olive tree. In 775 BC Olympia, Greece, at the site of the ancient Olympic stadium, athletes competed and trained, and winners were triumphantly acclaimed and crowned with a wreath made of olive twigs. Ancient gold coins that were minted in Athens depicted the face of the Goddess, Athena, wearing an olive leaf wreath on her helmet holding a clay vessel of olive oil. The Greeks began olive cultivation in 700 BC.

The sacred lamp that was used in ancient Greek culture for lighting dark rooms at night was fueled by olive oil. Aged olive oil was also used in sacred anointing rituals of the church at weddings and at baptisms. Herodotus wrote in 500 BC, that the growing and exporting of olives and olive oil were so sacred that only virgins and eunuchs were allowed to cultivate orchards of olive trees. The first documented plantings of olive trees may have occurred during the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and are believed to have been growing around 3500 BC. That civilization predates the discovered Mycenae olive fossils from 1600 BC and later in the Greek empire. Sturt Manning, an archeologist from Cornell University, reported in Live Science Magazine (Apr 28, 2005) that the most devastating volcano in 10,000 years occurred on the Greek Island of Thera, after which the city of Akrotiri was totally buried by the falling ash. The finding of olive wood and olive seed fossils buried near the site has shown through carbon dating that the volcanic eruption occurred between 1660 and 1600 BC and may have contributed to the total destruction of the advanced Minoan civilization (Atlantis) on the isle of Crete and may have led to the formation of the Sahara desert in North Africa after vaporizing the native forests there.

The fragrant flowers of olive trees are small and creamy white, hidden within the thick leaves. Some cultivars will self pollinate, but others will not. The blossoms usually begin appearing in April and can continue for many months. A wild, seedling olive tree normally begins to flower and produce fruit at the age of 8 years. The fruit of the olive tree is a purplish-black when completely ripe, but a few cultivars are green when ripe and some olives turn a color of copper-brown. The size of the olive fruit is variable, even on the same tree, and the shape ranges from round to oval with pointed ends. Some olives can be eaten fresh after sun-drying and the taste is sweet, but most olive cultivars are bitter and must be treated by various chemical solutions before developing into edible olives. If the olives are thinned on the limbs of the trees to 2 or 3 per twig, the ultimate size of the olives will be much larger. The fruit is gathered in mid October and should be processed as soon as possible to prevent fermentation and a decline in quality.

The leaves of olive trees are gray-green and are replaced at 2-3 year intervals during the spring after new growth appears. Pruning yearly and severely is very important to insure continued production. The trees have the unproductive limbs removed, "so that it will be more fruitful" John 15:2. An olive tree can grow to 50 feet with a limb spread of 30 feet, but most growers will keep the tree pruned to 20 feet to assure maximum production. New sprouts and trees will emerge from the olive tree stump roots, even if the trees are cut down. Some olive trees are believed to be over a thousand years old, and most will live to the ripe old age of 500 years.

Olives generally are beaten off trees with poles, harvested mechanically or by shaking the fruit from the trees onto canvas. Most ripening olives are removed from the trees after the majority of the fruit begins to change in color. It is important to squeeze out the olive oil within a day after harvesting or else fermentation or decline in flavor and quality will occur. The olive oil can be consumed or used in cooking immediately after its collection from the press. Olive oils are unique and distinct, each brand of olive oil having its own character, as determined by many factors, like those unique flavor differences found in fine wines. Prepared commercial olive oils can vary greatly in aroma, fruit flavor; whether the taste is, flowery, nutty, delicate, or mild, and the coloring of olive oil is quite variable.

Olive oil produces many health benefits when used in cooking or when poured over salads. The use of olive oil can improve digestion and can benefit heart metabolism through its low content of cholesterol. Experts claim that olive oil consumption will cause a person to grow shiny hair, prevent dandruff, prevent wrinkles, prevent dry skin and acne, strengthen nails, stop muscle aching, lower blood pressure and cancel out the effects of alcohol.

Olive trees can survive droughts and strong winds, and they grow well on well drained soils up to a pH of 8.5 and the trees can tolerate salt water conditions. In Europe, olive trees are normally fertilized every other year with an organic fertilizer. Alternate bearing can be avoided by heavy pruning and generally the trees respond to this very quickly and favorably.

Olive trees should be purchased that have been vegetatively propagated or grafted, because the seed grown trees will revert to a wild type that yields small olives with an insipid taste. Olive trees are more resistant to diseases and insects than any other fruit tree and, therefore, are sprayed less than any other crop.

Even though commercial production of olives in the United States is only 2% of the world market, great interest in growing olives throughout the South has been stimulated by the recent introduction of promising cold hardy olive trees from European hybridizers. Many European immigrants to the United States grow their own olive trees in large pots, that can be moved in and out of the house during seasonal changes.

History Of Olive Trees

Learn more about various trees by visiting the author's website: http://www.tytyga.com

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History Of The Pawpaw Tree

Pawpaw trees were discovered in 1541 by the Spanish explorer, Hernando Desoto, on an excursion into the Mississippi Valley, and he sent samples of this plant back to Europe.

William Bartram in 1776 stated in his botanical book, Travels, that he found pawpaw trees growing on the Alatamaha River in Georgia and in east Florida, which he described as, 'Annona incarna,' the name later was updated by modern taxonomists. "The fruit the size of a small cucumber ...containing a yellow pulp of the consistence of a hard custard, and a very delicious, wholesome food."

History

This fruit is agreeably flavored and considered to be the largest native fruit of North America. The pawpaw trees are said to be endangered or threatened in the states of New York and New Jersey, in the forests where it grows naturally.

The pawpaw tree grows across most of the eastern United States as a native tree. Mature pawpaw trees produce fruits 2" wide by 10" long, looking and tasting very much like a banana. The fruit is liked immensely by most people and may be purchased at many outdoor markets in West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, etc. The pawpaw pulp has the consistency of creamy custard and may be eaten raw, baked, or used as a pie filling. The trees grow about 15' tall and have been known to produce as much as 60 pounds of pawpaws per tree. Some individual pawpaws weigh up to a pound each. Zones 5-10

Much interest has been recently directed towards research and development of improved varieties of the pawpaw at Universities in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio. The large fruit is not well known in much of the United States, but its flavor and exotic shape make it a candidate for the expansive, potential of specialty fruit markets in the future. Taste it once fresh and you will feel compelled to have some of these pawpaw trees growing in your personal fruit orchard.

One of the great horticultural mysteries of the world is: why have most paw paw trees, that were plentiful throughout early U.S. forests, virtually disappeared from their natural habitat today? That answer may lie within the research results (Peterson 1991), that showed that the paw paw is sensitive to ultraviolet light, thus, paw paw seedlings may not grow back after the forests have been harvested, and there are very few virgin forests left in the United States. Paw paws can be found growing there abundantly, but once the forests are clean-cut, the paw paw will not usually become re-established.

These experiments must be clearly remembered, when you order your paw paw trees. They must be planted under partial shade of other trees, however, you may plant your pawpaw trees in the open, if the trees are grown under shade cloth for a couple of seasons. The tree will lose its sensitivity to full sunlight once it has become established and the shade cloth can be discarded.

Some gardeners wish to plant their pawpaw trees in pots for a couple of years under shady conditions, but this is not necessary if the above guidelines are followed. Since paw paw trees are tap rooted, growth will be slow during the first year, but after that, very rapid growth occurs afterwards.

Paw paw leaves are large and that large leaf surface generally indicates a need for large amounts of soil moisture, and therefore, generally, paw paws are found in their greatest numbers near river flood plains. Leaves or other organic composted materials are very beneficial to paw paws.

The skin of paw paws is thin and edible and can vary in color from a light green to a golden yellow. Most people prefer to eat the pawpaw fruit after it becomes soft to the touch. The custard- like pulp tastes like banana and varies in color from white to deep orange. The seed are few and large, thus, pawpaws are easy to eat raw.

Most paw paws are sold at roadside markets, because the shelf life is short. Commercially, the paw paw is important in juices, pies, cakes, custards, ice cream and other processed products.

The pawpaw tree was voted by Better Homes and Gardens, in the year 2000, as the landscape tree of the year. The pawpaw and the pawpaw tree are loaded with beneficial health extracts. The bark contains fluids that demonstrate anti-tumor properties and have been used over the years to fight scarlet fever and red skin rashes. These extracts from pawpaw trees are highly useful as an organic insect killer (pesticide).

Pawpaw fruits are rich in minerals such as magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, potassium, and phosphorus. The fruit also contains abundant concentrations of Vitamin C, proteins, and their derivative amino acids.

There are a number of grafted cultivars of paw paw but their range of adaptation is very narrow, and many cultivars that produce heavy crops of large fruit in Kentucky, Indiana or West Virginia do not perform satisfactorily in Georgia, Florida, Carolina or Alabama. Consider buying improved seedling paw paw trees, which appear to be more adaptable universally. Try some of these trees in your orchard for a real tasty treat.

History Of The Pawpaw Tree

Learn more about various trees by visiting the author's website: http://www.tytyga.com

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What Started It All - The History of Volleyball

Surprisingly, one of the most well loved sports in the world is also relatively young. Despite the game's youth, it has gone through a wide variety of changes and evolution as a part of its rich history.

Believe it or not, but at one time there wasn't Asics or Nike women's volleyball shoes or even volleyball uniforms for sale anywhere, let alone online!

History

To fully understand and appreciate how much the game has changed and how much work was put into to make it successful, you need to search back to the very origin of Volleyball, and study when and why changes were made.

Just over 100 years ago, in 1895, William G. Morgan developed the first game of Volleyball. At the time, Morgan dubbed the game "Mintonette". "Mintonette" was created for business men as a game that involved less physical contact at the chapter of the YMCA where he worked at in Holyoke, Massachusetts. Morgan borrowed aspects from several games to create his own game. The first aspect was from tennis, borrowing the net. Instead of the standard net, however, he raised it to be 6 foot 6 inches high, so it was just over the heads of average men. Other sports he borrowed from include basketball, baseball and handball. During one of the demonstration games of the sport, one of the spectators commented the game was more about volleying, and the games name was changed to Volleyball.

That was only the beginning.

In 1896, the first official game of Volleyball was played at Springfield College. This game signified the first real take-off of the sport, and led into further games being played at a variety of different Colleges. In the year 1900, Volleyball had taken off enough where a special ball was designed just for the game. Another feat also accomplished in 1900 was that the YMCA took the sport from America to Canada, the Orient and the southern hemisphere. Five years later, Volleyball also spread to Cuba. This spreading was what signified the start of the Volleyball era. Unlike most sports, Volleyball moved International in its early days, allowing for the game to evolve to meet the players needs world wide.

In 1907, Volleyball received its first recognition of being one of the most popular sports at the Playground of America convention. This was the first recognition the sport received, and helped to further its popularity. In the following ten years, the YMCA continued to spread the sport to Brazil, Puerto Rico and Uruguay. In 1913, the first official Volleyball competition was held in the Far Eastern Games.

1916 saw Volleyball have its first true evolution. In the Philippines, the set and spike offensive pass was introduced, and game play was altered to involve this new form. The Filipinos developed the "bomba", which is the kill, and the named the hitter the "bomberino". In this same year, the NCAA was invited by the YMCA to alter the rules of the game, and it was initiated into Colleges and other schools as a part of the standard physical education courses and intramural programs. A year later, the scoring system was also adjusted so that a game ended after 15 points instead of 21. This allowed more games to be played within the same span of time, in an attempt to make the sessions a little shorter for the players.

Three short years later, in 1919, the American Expeditionary Forces donated 16,000 Volleyballs to the troops, which provided a stimulus for growth in foreign countries. With this rise in growth of the sport, new rules began being developed. A year later, the three hits per side rule and the back row attack rules were put into place.

By 1928, players and fans of the sport realized that "official" tournament rules and regulations were required. The United States Volleyball Association was formed, and the first U.S. Open Volleyball tournament was held. The U.S. Open allowed for squads that were not YMCA sanctioned to participate, which was a breakthrough at the time. This evolution permitted lovers of the sport to fully enjoy the game without having to be tied to the organization that created it.

After 1928, the game of Volleyball was forever changed. With the "official" rules set down, and a tournament that wasn't private to the YMCA, the popularity of the sport was allowed to sky rocket. The Men's U.S. Open was held every year thereafter, with the exception of three years. 1943, 1944 and 1989 did not have the yearly tournaments, due to wars and other obstacles.

In 1934, Volleyball saw another extensive change through the recognition of official referees to oversee the games. This change in particular drastically altered the calls and the fairness of the game.

The 1940's held several special events for Volleyball. Not only was the forearm pass introduced into the game, the first world championship Volleyball game was held. It was during this time that the volleyball movement saw fruition, and squads from all over the world could find out who was the best. This became a yearly event, allowing for more publicity of the sport, which aided in its growth. Around this time, over 50 million people were playing world wide, in over 60 different countries.

By 1964, Volleyball had spread enough to warrant introduction into the Olympic games. The first games took place in Tokyo, where a rubber carcass with leather panels was used for the ball. This ball became the one that would be used in most modern competitions. As a part of the Olympic games, Volleyball was allowed to grow even further, until it secured a place for itself as the second most played game in the world.

Despite this high level of popularity, it wasn't until 1986 that the Women's Professional Volleyball Association, or the WPVA, was formed. With the growing rate of professional interest by both sexes, Volleyball was finally allowed to reach its full potential for popularity. Elementary, middle and high schools, as well as colleges all invested into the game by providing courses in Volleyball in their physical education, so that the sport was known in most households around the world.

While still trailing behind Soccer for popularity, Volleyball has done extremely well for a game with roots so young.

What Started It All - The History of Volleyball

About The Author

Rebecca Blain is a professional and hobbyist writer who enjoys taking care of her fish and educating people about volleyball equipment which can be read about here:

http://www.everything-volleyball.com

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History of Radiation Therapy

The discoveries of x-rays and radiation by scientists Becquerel and Rontgen in the late 1800s got the ball rolling in radiation application. Marie Curie's Nobel Prize winning work with radioactive elements also helped set the stage at the turn of the century.

Scientists and doctors, out of happenstance, discovered that radiation regressed or slowed some tumors according to some studies on record. They were ignorant of the specific reasons why, but the first radiation oncologists cured, from historical record, the first cancer case in 1898.

History

They were mostly cures of superficial cancers and the reoccurrence of tumors in treated patients were high due to the unrefined nature of the radiation application methods and the massive doses or radiation given.

Through the late thirties until after World War II some hardware advances were made to help propel charged particles through a vacuum tunnel called a linac, or linear accelerator. This was used to make a more concentrated penetrable means to send x-rays to cancerous areas deeper in the body while not affecting the skin as much.

Two scientists from Stanford, Dr. Henry Kaplan and Edward Ginzton, worked together to bring this up to a standard where it could be used in a clinical setting. By 1960 the work done by these two researchers spawned the first publically launched rotational radiotherapy linac called the "Clinac 6."

By the time the Clinac 6 came out in the early 1960s, a radiation oncologist had a high powered x-ray delivery machine system. However, the accuracy of locating the tumor and directing the charged particles still had a ways to go.

Modern Hardware Advances

The biggest hurdle to develop better radiation therapy hardware was to avoid affecting the healthy cells as much as possible. The tumor had to be targeted better and the charged particles needed to basically stay in line of the tumor's shape.

The computer age helped enable a three dimensional x-ray look at a tumor. Coupled with the mapping means of new internal scanning technology and radiotherapy, the Intensity-modulated radiation therapy or IMRT machine came to fruition.

The IMRT uses the mapping information from what is called Computed Tomography (CT) scans. This produces a 3-D image of the tumor. The image data is then fed into the x-ray beam linac system to target the contours of the tumor.

A recent specific form of IMRT is the TomoTherapy system, which is a commercial patented process that uses the CT guided IMRT technology which can direct the radiation source spiraling around the patient. This makes the 3-D contours of a tumor more easily traced by the beam from the linac.

TomoTherapy is quite new, having just started its first clinical use in 2003.

The latest advancement in scanning technology within the radiation therapy world is a system called Image Guided Radiation Treatment. The IGRT machine is a delivery system that uses dynamic CT images of the body that actually compensates for any movement the tumor may have.

The big problem with scanning and targeting tumors is that the target moves within the body. The IGRT technology compensates for degrees of movement to make targeting the tumor much more accurate. This is the bleeding edge of radiation therapy today.

History of Radiation Therapy

Vantage Oncology (http://www.vantageoncology.com) provides a management system for oncology centers. They have been in business since 2002 and are committed to the improvement of cancer treatment through superior patient care and improving technologies such as TomoTherapy and IGRT.

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Harley Davidson History

In 1901, the 21 year-old William S. Harley had created the blueprint of an engine that was designed to fit in a conventional bicycle. Two years later, William together with his friend Arthur Davidson started and developed a one-cylinder engine that was installed on a conventional bicycle during that time. However, this motorized-bicycle was proved to be incapable of climbing through the Milwaukee hills without pedal assistance. Harley and Davidson developed further their motor after that experience.

Immediately, they have created a bigger engine (405 cc or 24.74 cubic inches) that was become the very first and real Harley-Davidson motorcycle. Meanwhile, the first Harley-Davidson factory was in a 10 x 15-foot wooden shed. The two friends were helped by Arthur's older brother Walter.

History

After a year, the Harley-Davidson motorcycle entered its very first motorcycle race at Milwaukee.

The first years came in so quickly for the company that after 3 years, Harley-Davidson motorcycle production was transferred at Chestnut Street (that was later become Juneau Avenue). This is still the Harley-Davidson headquarters up to this time.

In 1907, William received a degree in mechanical engineering at University of Wisconsin. This helped them to development of better Harley-Davidson engines in the future. The same year also provided them a much needed factory expansion for the growing motorcycle demands. The year 1907 introduced the 45-degree V-Twin engine which has become the sole Harley-Davidson engine for a very long time.

Over the years, the company has gained so much popularity that was converted into sales output. During the First World War, Harley-Davidson was commissioned to provide more than 20,000 units for military use. The story of the Second World was the same for the company. They produced thousand upon thousands of motorcycle.

Before the entry of the 70's, AMF or the American Machinery and Foundry bought Harley-Davidson. Policies had changed that resulted to labor strike and substandard bikes. The popularity and reputation of the company was severely damaged.

In the 80's, it was sold to a group of investors headed by Willie G. Davidson and Vaughn Beals. The provided innovations such as the introduction of the "Sturgis". The costumers began to return and the company had seen clearer promise.

Since then, the popularity of Harley-Davidson motorcycles was unquestionable. They regained their leadership in motorcycle industry as they create a unique line of motorcycles, different from the conventional Japan made. Now, after more than a hundred years of existence, Harley-Davidson motorcycles have become an attraction in every road around the world.

Harley Davidson History

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History Of Soccer - Interesting Facts

Soccer has become increasingly more popular in the United States in the last 30 years, with nearly 3 million children between the ages of 5-19 now playing in youth soccer leagues throughout the nation.

Soccer began in England in the mid-1800's, and was originally played by the higher, more aristocratic English classes in their boarding schools and private clubs. The ease and inexpense of the sport quickly moved it ahead as a sport for the masses however. Today soccer is ranked as one of the world's leading sports for commoners.

History

The London Football Association was founded and 1863 and is responsible for standardizing game rules throughout Europe. In less than 20 years, professional players and teams were hitting the field.

Soccer began to spread throughout Europe almost immediately, with Spain, Germany, Italy, and France all taking up the game b the early 20th century. As interest in the sport grew throughout the world, so did an interest in formal competition. In 1900, the first soccer game was played at the Olympics, with medals introduced just eight years later. Professional players, however, were exempt from competition in the Olympic Games for more than 80 years.

In 1904, The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), was formed, followed by the first World Cup international competition in 1930. A round-robin style tournament that pits teams from individual nations against each other every four years, the World Cup has grown into an international affair, with nearly 200 teams now seeking admittance. Only 24 are permitted to compete.

Although it took the United States years to enter the soccer arena on a widespread basis, the U.S. Soccer Federation (USSF) was formed in 1913. Unfortunately, most Americans preferred watching (and playing) a different form of the sport -- American football -- until a Brazilian named Pele, (considered to the greatest soccer player of all time), joined the N.Y. Cosmos team in 1975. With such an amazing player to watch in America, popularity of the sport grew throughout the states, until his retirement in 1977, when soccer once again took a backseat to football. Following Pele's retirement, the North American Soccer League slowly lost fan support, finally dissolving in 1985.

It wasn't until the men's World Cup competition, was held in the United States in 1994, that soccer interest was renewed among American youth. The Major League Soccer (MLS), was founded in 1993, and began its first season in 1996 with 10 teams and 32 regular season games. More than 3 million fans watched the playoffs that year. By 1991, women were finally allowed to play on a professional level, when the Women's World Cup competition was introduced for the first time.

The interest in youth soccer remains strong throughout the United States today. Sports teams and leagues are now available in nearly every American community. From pee-wee players who aren't even in school yet, to semi-professional high school teams, players of all interest and abilities are now hitting the soccer field for both spring and fall competition. The U.S. Youth Soccer, a division of the USSF, now includes nearly 3 million official players.

History Of Soccer - Interesting Facts

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History of the Camera

Early cameras of the 16th and 17th century were able to project images onto paper or glass but the study of capturing, processing and printing the images took many more years. Up until the 17th century, scientists believed that light was composed basically of the 'white' that is perceived by the human eye. It took the research done by famous physicist Isaac Newton to discover that light is actually composed of a spectrum of colors. While he made a big contribution to the study of optics (that is at the core of camera advances) with this discovery, Newton did not actually have anything to do with camera development per se.

The early camera that first became a phenomenon was a little more than a pinhole camera and can be traced back to 1558. It was called the Camera Obscura. The Camera Obscura was seen as a drawing tool for a clearer and realistic portrayal of objects. It was in the early 19th century that an invention named the Camera Lucida was introduced by Cambridge scientist William Hyde Wollaston that consisted of an optical device that could help an artist view a distant scene or person or object on a paper surface that he or she was using to draw. In other words the artist gets to view a superimposed image of a subject on paper and this image could be effectively used to attempt to draw, trace or paint it. Both the Camera Obscura and the Camera Lucida provided an image that was temporary, which could not be lastingly captured on to paper for later reference.

History

Studies however continued well into the 1800's on how to actually capture the image onto material. It was during this time, around 1822 that French researcher Joseph Nicephore Niepce, created the first photograph by using paper that was coated with a chemical. The image would not stay permanently on the paper and would disappear after a short while. Even so, despite the short-lived nature of the image, the concept of photography was born with this experiment and paved the way for further study and development in this field.

Capturing images to retain them longer and permanently became the next big quest for researchers. Another Frenchman Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre partnered with Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1829, to develop the process of creating permanent photographs. Joseph Niépce died in 1833 but Daguerre continued with the work and succeeded in 1837 after many long years of experimentation. The process of capturing photographic images that would not fade away, introduced by Daguerre came to be known as the 'daguerreotype'.

The word 'photography' was coined by scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839 and it is actually is derived from two Greek words 'photos' meaning light and 'graphein' meaning draw.

A slightly more advanced version of the daguerreotype called the Calotype process that makes multiple copies possible using the negative and positive method became available very soon after. In fact, it was during the 1840's that the use of photographic images in advertisements first started and cameras made their mark on the power of visual communication. It was not much later, in the 1850's that photographers first started experimenting with underwater photography of seascapes.

Up until 1850, the process of capturing images was cumbersome requiring upto half an hour of light exposure. The discovery made in 1851 by Frederick Scott Archer was a blessing since the new method termed the Collodion process called for just 2-3 seconds of light exposure to capture an image.

Prior to 1871, photographers went through a development process where they had to coat the plate with wet chemical each and every time and process the image immediately. With the invention the gelatin dry plate silver bromide process by Richard Leach Maddox, negatives did not have to be developed immediately. This was an important discovery since up until then the captured image had to be processed instantly.

Kodak created in 1888 by George Eastman has been a modern day pioneer of sorts in cameras and photography for the masses. George Eastman and the scientists who worked with him at Kodak developed the photographic film in 1889 and made it available in rolls for the mass use of consumers. An important milestone in our entertainment and communication history was the development of transparent roll film by Eastman. This development led to another key invention - the motion picture camera by Thomas Edison's in 1891.

-->Modern Times

During the 20th century the pace of technology development in cameras and photography continued at an accelerated pace much like many other key technology developments. While several key inventions like car, telephone and the gramophone record happened in the later half of the 19th century, it is the last 100 years that saw major developmental work in many areas of communications technology and as well as in other fields - TV, aircrafts, PCs, digital technology, digital cameras, mobile phones, fax machines and the internet, to name a few.

In the case of the camera, the developments simplified the whole process of photography, making it accessible to one and all at affordable prices and the camera industry denizens of our times made it into a mass phenomenon. The first mass use camera became available at the turn of the 20th century and can be traced back to the year 1900. There are hundreds of models of cameras available today both for the amateur as well as the professional and the camera is an important part of any family's repertoire of must have gadgets.

-->20th century chronology in the history of the camera:

1913: 35 mm still-camera created

1927: The flash bulb introduced by General Electric Co. (The concept of camera flash existed much before but was based on the use of a flash light powder that was invented by German researchers)

1935- 1941: Kodak starts marketing Kodachrome film and subsequently launches Kodacolor negative film. Canon released the Hansa Canon in 1936, the first 35mm focal-plane shutter camera.

1948: The concept of the Polaroid camera is introduced in the market. American scientist Edwin Land developed the process for instant photography. Later Polaroid Corporation developed the 'instant color' film around 1963.

1957: Frenchman Jaques Yves Cousteau invented the first waterproof 35mm camera for underwater photography named the Calypso Phot. The actual camera was developed by the Belgian airplane technical designer Jean de Wouters based on the blueprint and suggestions given to him by Cousteau.

1972: The electronic camera that does not require film was created and patented by Texas Instruments. This is however not the same as a digital camera though you don't require film in digital cameras as well. The launch of the digital camera is still many years away.

1975: Kodak's experiments with digital imaging kicked off around the mid seventies but it will take another 20 years before a digital camera for the home consumer market is launched.

1978 - 1980: Asian players like Konica and Sony begin to make their mark. The 'point and shoot' automatic focus camera is launched by Konica while Sony starts talking about the camcorder and demonstrates a prototype.

1981: Sony launches a commercially available electronic still camera. Similar to the 1972 invention by Texas Instruments, the Sony electronic camera came with a mini disc on which images were recorded and stored. The recorded images could be later printed or viewed on a monitor using a reader device.

1985: Digital processing technology makes its entry. Digital imaging and processing is introduced by Pixar.

1986: The camera industry becomes even more consumer focused and taps the fun and travel connotations behind camera usage, with the launch of the concept of the disposable single use cameras. Fuji is credited with the development of this concept.

Also in 1986 - 1987, Kodak started taking giant strides in digital development. Digital means, the photographic image is divided into tiny units of dots or squares known as pixels. Pixels are the programmable units of an image that can be processed by computers. Each image could be made up of millions of pixels. The use of pixels in digital technology allows storing large volumes of pixels to deliver high definition print quality.

1990: Kodak introduces Photo CD's. It is a system of storing photographic images on CD and then viewing them on a computer. With this development the user-friendly approach of the camera industry began to take concrete shape.

1991: Kodak introduces a digital camera targeted at professionals and journalists. Kodak is credited with the invention of a pixel based camera technology known to us as the digital camera. Digital cameras don't use film similar to their predecessor electronic cameras but the storage method is entirely different and the final photograph is of much higher resolution. In a digital camera photos are recorded and stored in digital form. This digital data can be transferred to a computer and processed for printing. Kodak and Canon are well known digital camera manufacturers and there are also several other key brands as well.

1994: The Apple QuickTake camera, a home use digital camera is launched. This is followed by the launch of a clutch of home use digital cameras by Casio, Kodak and others in quick succession during 1995 -'96.

-->The digital era:

The development of digital camera technology is considered to be linked to the development of TV and Video technology. The principles of transmission and recording of audio-visual images using digital electrical impulses finds use in camera imaging as well.

Through the 1990's the developments continued in camera technology, the focus now shifting to the field of digital imaging which is where the future lies. Use-friendly features like software that can download digital images directly from camera onto home computers for storing and sharing on the internet is the new norm in the market place.

The camera, the computer, the software industry and the worldwide web are today irrevocably interlinked to empower the user in experiencing the benefits of camera usage to full potential. The innovation that sparked many an invention in the camera industry found its way into the digital world as well and continued among digital camera manufacturers. During 2001, the Kodak and Microsoft partnership ensured that digital camera manufacturers could use the power of Picture Transfer Protocol (PTP) standard through Windows. The digital photo experience is a key visual driver in the Internet era. Many of Kodak digital camera models with EasyShare capabilities are compatible with Windows XP. The Kodak EasyShare software enables users to transfer digital camera pictures directly from camera to their computers and then print the pictures or even email them.

Manufacturers in a related industry like the printing industry have adapted their products to be in sync with the images created by digital cameras. Cell phone manufacturers have tied up with digital camera manufacturers to develop new age camera phones in recent years. These camera phones can capture images and share the images through the cell phone.

Among the 21st century digital developments are the advanced product offerings from digital cameras manufacturers and these are sure to occupy an important place in the ensuing history of camera development. For instance, the Kodak Professional DCS Pro SLR/c is a high-end digital camera and the Kodak website calls the DCS Pro SLR models the most feature-rich digital cameras on the market. It has an image sensor that can handle 13.89 million pixels and this makes it the highest resolution digital camera available. High resolution determines the sharpness or level of detail in photographic images. This is just a glimpse of the capabilities that digital technology places in a user's hands. Digital camera sales figures for 2003 show that the two key players Kodak and Canon have recorded impressive growth.

-->What does the future holds for camera users?

The features offered by digital cameras can be quite mind-boggling for the average user and pretty exciting for most pros. Four key ongoing camera developments that are likely to further improve the process of photography:

1. Greater resolution from even the simplest, low cost camera models

2. Usage in any type of lighting conditions,

3. Compatibility across a range of software, hardware and image types

4. Rich colors and tone

While the higher-end digital evolution continues, the prices of the simple camera have crashed to such an extent that even children and teens are proud owners of uncomplicated cameras. The camera and photography interest starts young and this creates a truly large audience base for the camera industry.

And throughout history, it is evident that the endeavor of researchers and developers has been to make the camera available to a wide section of society. Without camera technology and photography, the other key developments of cinema and TV would have been delayed and what a boring place the world would have been without TV and films!!

History of the Camera

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History Of Lenny Kravitz - Are You The One?

Singer and songwriter Lenny Kravitz has decided he is giving up sex until he meets the woman of his dreams. After waking up with an anonymous one night stand in his bed three years ago, the Grammy award winning artist has decided it is time to make a change. Vowing celibacy, he's looking for 'The One', in big step in the history of Lenny Kravitz.

Kravitz, like most rock and roll stars, has been linked with beautiful women since his career got started, most notably Lisa Bonet of the 'The Cosby Show', and Madonna, although he denies that anything ever went on between him and the blonde bombshell. Other famous names include Penelope Cruz, Kylie Minogue, and Nicole Kidman. Now, he doesn't care what anyone thinks about his vow. He's in it for the long run and whoever the lucky lady is who wins his heart will be thankful for it.

History

So far he's kept his promise to himself for the last three years. He doesn't find it difficult and he claims it is very easy to now ignore those who are trying very hard to seduce him. He truly believes that two people should be in love and his music is a direct reflection of that feeling. His new album, 'It Is Time For A Love Revolution' is a testimony to the 'hippie era' in which he was raised and he believes that we can all work together better if we just showed a little more love. What a great way to keep moving on the road that is the history of Lenny Kravitz.

History Of Lenny Kravitz - Are You The One?

Check out this site for more of the history of Lenny Kravitz [http://www.historyoflennykravitz.com]

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The History of Massage

Massage, in some form or another, has been practiced since the dawn of human civilization. Physical touch with the aim to comfort, heal, or sooth physical or emotional pain is common to all civilizations and throughout history each many cultures have developed their own distinct methods of massage or manual therapy. The earliest written records of massage in a medicinal or therapeutic capacity come from the ancient civilizations of India and China. Massage is included in the ancient Hindu medical writings of India, the Ayurveda, which describes methods that are still in practice today. The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine or Huangdi Neijing, the basis for traditional Chinese medicine, which dates from the 1st or 2nd century BC, recommends massage among its treatments. Apparently, ancient Egyptian tomb paintings depicting massage have also been discovered. The classical Greek physician Hippocrates, widely considered to be the "father of Western medicine", was a great proponent of massage as was the Roman Emperor Julius Caesar, who benefitted from daily massages to treat his chronic headaches.

In 16th century France massage practices became more widespread due their use by royal court physician Ambroise Pare. In the 1700s a very old and classic Chinese text on massage called the Cong-Fu of the Toa-Tse was translated and published in French. Much of the main basic terminology still used today in massage pedagogy is French in origin (massage, petrissage, effleurage, etc.).

History

"Swedish Massage"

The most common and popular form of massage therapy in the West is often referred to as Swedish massage, or classic massage. Many of the techniques used in classic or Swedish massage are similar or analogous to the techniques developed and used during the 1800s by the Swedish doctor Per Henrik Ling, who incorporated massage into his medicinal gymnastics regimen, which would also become the basis for physical therapy. Ling borrowed techniques from Chinese massage, which he learned from his friend Ming, a practitioner of martial arts and the traditional Chinese practice of manipulative therapy called tui na. In 1813 Ling founded the Kungliga Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet, or the Royal Central Institute for Gymnastics in Stockholm, a center of higher learning for the education of physiotherapists. As far as strict classic massage as a separate discipline in itself is concerned, the development and application of the French terms can be credited to Dutch massage practitioner Johan Georg Mezger (1838-1909). Mezger compiled the system of strokes used in classic massage that are still employed today. So what is commonly known today as "Swedish massage" was actually developed by a Dutchman, though his terminology was employed and popularized by the Swede Per Henrik Ling.

Today massage therapy is more popular than ever. Varieties of massage practices from around the world are available, offering a wide array of therapies, benefits and experiences. Traditional manual therapies from the East such as Ayurvedic massage from India (including the renowned Indian head massage), Japanese Shaitsu, Tui Nua from China and the popular Thai or "Thai Yoga" massage from Thailand are becoming more and more common in locations throughout the world, while modern Western styles continue to develop and diversify, incorporating a range of relaxation and wellness-themed treatments as well as medicinally-based body therapies. Sports massage, Bowen Technique, Rolfing and manual lymphatic drainage are just a few examples of the latter. It seems that in these times of advanced technology and medical science, mankind is still looking to traditional methods involving natural, manual therapy as these techniques continue to evolve, branch out and specialize to meet humanity's ongoing need for touch based healing and care.

The History of Massage

Joe Vassilliou is a staff writer for a Cyprus massage website who lives in South Cyprus with his wife and 5 kids. He loves water sports, swimming and free lance writing. Enjoy a massage in Nicosia Cyprus for health and relaxation.

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Boxer Dog Breed Origin and History

Boxer Dog Origin

This breed originates from Germany and finds its early ancestor to be a mastiff type dog, the large Molossian Hound. Later, this dog evolved into what was called the Bullenbeisser. The Bullenbeiszer's roots go back to Belgium and these ancestors were known as great hunting and working dogs.

History

Originally used to hunt wild boar and later used for working with cattle these dogs eventually diverged into different types, the smaller of which were called the Brabanter Bullenbeiszer. After mixing with a forerunner of the English Bulldog, the dog became what is known today as the Boxer breed around the mid to late 19th century. The Boxer dog origin and history becomes well documented at that point as dog breed clubs were formed in Germany in the 1860s.

Boxer Dog Breed History

What we know of as the Boxer today can be traced to the 1830s when a breeder crossbred the Brabanter Bullenbeiszer with the English Bulldog, but the Boxer dog breed history really begins in the 1860s as breeders began to establish and develop guidelines for the breed. In 1895 the Boxer Club was formally formed and further improvements were made to the standards of the Boxer dog breed.

Although initially the Boxer dog breed was generally white, by 1925 white was not accepted as a proper color for the breed. In fact, the color of choice now is fawn and brindle and any dog with more than a third of its coat white will be disqualified in AKC events.

This dog breed came to the United States around the beginning of the 1900s but did not become a popular dog breed until the 1940s. The breed was first registered by the American Kennel Club in 1904 and the first Boxer Champion was recognized in 1915. In 1949 a famous Boxer dog, Bang Away, won Best in Show at the Westminster and went on to win 121 more Best in Shows over the course of six years.

Bang Away became a famous dog, appearing on the front of magazine such as Life and Esquire. Due to the success of this one dog, the breed became very popular in the United States at the time and continues to be one of the 10 most popular breeds as determined by the American Kennel Club.

Boxer Dog Breed Origin and History

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History of Alternative Medicine

History has it that alternative medicine goes back 5000 years to Chinese traditional medicine, Indian (Ayuryedic medicine) and similar healing traditions in many cultures. The common belief was that the energy of the body had to be in harmony with the mind, body and spirit. A doctor merely facilitated the healing by identifying and taking away obstacles that would inevitably lead to a cure. Therapy included lifestyle changes, self-care and preventative measures.

Today, what we know of as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has roots going back 5,000 years to Chinese (traditional Chinese medicine), Indian (Ayurvedic medicine) and similar healing traditions. For thousands of years, these diverse medical traditions held a belief in the energy of the body and the need for harmony between mind, body and spirit. Doctor's simply facilitated the healing process by identifying and removing obstacles.

History

Throughout most of the 19th century, doctors used the same skills as today's herbalists, osteopaths and dieticians; they were generous with time and empathy, and relied on a good bedside manner. Prayer was important, as was "a change of air," laxatives, bleeding and leeches. Right up until the early 20th century, sick people relied on much the same kind of therapies as their ancestors.

The decades following the Second World War brought significant changes. As GP and journalist, James Lefanu noted in his book, The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine, written in the 50s, a series of medical breakthroughs proved beyond a doubt that previous attempts at healing were nothing more than mere quackery. New medical breakthroughs included the discovery of penicillin, cortisone (a powerful anti-inflammatory medicine), streptomycin (a powerful antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis), insulin (to treat diabetes) and chlorpromazine (an anti-psychotic that controls schizophrenia). Open-heart surgery, hip replacements, kidney transplants, intensive care and successful vaccination programs saved and improved the quality of countless of millions of lives.

It's no surprise that so much power to alter human destiny would lead, as Lefanu suggests, "to the resultant abandonment of homely remedies such as massage, manipulation and dietary advice, only for them to be taken up by alternative practitioners." This is exactly what happened - with a dramatic explosion in the growth of 'alternative' therapies throughout the second half of the 20th century. Alongside modern medicine, CAM began to develop as an entirely separate discipline - contemptuous of the achievements of mainstream medicine, while at the same time dismissed by mainstream practitioners as ineffective and fraudulent. For most people, getting the best from mainstream and alternative medicine was a delicate operation. Those who opted for both mainstream and alternative medical care found that the best strategy was to remain quite to avoid criticism. Those who did try to use both services learnt that in order to avoid criticism.

History of Alternative Medicine

Alternative Medicine provides detailed information on Alternative Medicine, Alternative Herbal Medicine, Alternative Medicine Schools, History of Alternative Medicine and more. Alternative Medicine is affiliated with Chiropractic Clinics.

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The History of Scuba Diving

The history of scuba diving is very interesting. Many civilizations throughout time have engaged in breath-hold diving, also known as free-diving. The evidence of early free-diving is the finding of sea items found on land and ancient pictures of divers. These civilizations used free-diving to spearfish and also in competitions. The Ancient Greeks are known free-divers. They used free-diving to hunt for sponges and also in their military.

Some of the early attempts in the history of scuba diving to dive with the use of air include snorkeling with hollow reeds, using air-filled bags and diving bells. Diving bells are watertight chambers on cables. The diving bell is designed to remain full of air as it is pushed under water, allowing a few divers to be transported. These methods were not very efficient, however, and did not nearly resemble scuba diving as we know it today. The reeds did not allow divers to go deep into the water and air-filled bags soon filled with carbon-monoxide as the air was exhaled. Diving bells did not allow the divers much mobility.

History

The first diving suits were used in France and England. They were made of leather and air was pumped into them from the surface with manual pumps. Once the discovery was made to use metal to make helmets, these suits were able to stand greater pressure. With air manually pumped into these helmets, divers were able to enter deeper into the ocean and the history of scuba diving was furthered.

It wasn't until the 19th century that the research was done to invent modern scuba diving as we know it today. Paul Bert from France and John Scott Haldane from Scotland, conducted scientific research on water pressure and our bodies limits regarding safe compressed air diving. At the same time, new technologies allowed for the development of air pumps, scuba regulators and other equipment. Scuba diving and its history were becoming more known.

Throughout the 20th century, inventions in scuba equipment improved. Swim fins, masks and other scuba gear became available. In the 1950's the public began to take interest in scuba diving. Scuba gear shops began to open up and the first wet suit was introduced. Popular movies about diving and ships, including Titanic in 1997, continue to interest new divers and inspire veterans of the history-filled and adventurous sport of scuba diving.

The History of Scuba Diving

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The Skinny Jean: A Brief History

Skinny Jeans, whether you love them or loathe them, they're everywhere. But where did they come from?

1950s and 1960s fashion:

History

Jeans became the symbol of rebellion and passionate youth worn by the sex symbols of the day. James Dean, Marlon Brando, and Elvis wore their jeans straight and slim. Although women in the 50's didn't often wear jeans; Audrey Hepburn, Sandra Dee, and Marilyn Monroe wore the 50's fashion of slim, close fitting pants that had the same sexy silhouette as today's skinnies. By the 60's women's jeans were more common (even though the zipper was in the back) and they continued to have that skinny silhouette. The look could be super sweet like the girl next door, or sexy and rebellious like those greaser chics in the musical and movie of the same name. Rock and Roll was coming of age and tight jeans were the uniform.

1970s Fashion

The essence of Rock and Roll stays strong in skinny jeans despite the fluff and flash of the Disco era. When we think of 70's fashion, we think of elephant bells and groovy flare jeans; but dig a little deeper and you'll find the beginnings of the punk movement and the skinniest jeans in history. Tight from the waist to the ankle, safety pins were often used to keep them snug around the body and increase that bondage appeal. Think of The Sex Pistols and The Ramones as prime examples. Vivian Westwood had her own shop selling this "anti-fashion" to the ultra hip crowd.

1980s fashion

Flash Dance collides with Spandex to bringing a whole new look to the denim scene. Tight jeans were definitely in for women and men. Tight and stone washed, (still no stretch in denim) 80's fashion is where tapered leg jeans really made their mark, and the style lasted well into the early 90's. Remember those oversized sweatshirts and the colorful leg warmers? Pat Benetar, Chrissie Hynde and The Rolling Stones, all the serious rockers wore their denim tight (without the leg warmers of course).

1990s Fashion

While mainstream fashion heads toward the boot cut, skinny jeans recapture their cool. No longer popular in 90's fashion, tight jeans could still be found on the music scene. The Rolling Stones were still rolling along, and underground Punk with its Goth cousin were entrenched in tight skinny jeans (anti-fashion once again). Ever wonder why "Rock n Roll" is so often mentioned in reference to jeans? For mainstream America the skinny jean had taken a disturbing turn, evolving into tapered leg styles and even the horrors of faux denim leggings (some people just have trouble moving on).

2000-2003

Denim is everywhere, after years of boot cuts and flares, the skinny jean looks suddenly fresh and new. Here we are again, but skinny jeans didn't just pop up over night. It has taken a while to hit the mainstream. In fall of 2002 cutting edge designers were showing skinny jeans scrunched over high heels and tucked into boots. Stella McCartney, Versus (Versace), and Rock and Republic are all showing skinny jeans. By 2003 the trend becomes even more prevalent on the runways and all the premium denim brands are on board. You have to admit, it looks great on those runway models.

2004-2005

The Power of celebrity is omnipotent, if Kate is wearing it, it's got to be good.
Designers are still pushing the skinny, and the trend catches on in London. Visitors to High Street feel totally out of date in their tried and true boot cut jeans. JBrand Jeans is launched in LA, producing straight and skinny jeans in dark washes with minimal detailing. Celebrities such as Kate Moss, Angelina Jolie, and Sienna Miller embrace the new trend and look fabulous in it. Our very own fashionista, Ada, bought her first pair of skinny jeans in 2005, but mainstream America is still slow to catch on. Lucky Brand Jeans introduces skinnies to their customers only to watch them languish on the store shelves.

2006

The Skinny Jean is all the buzz! It's hard to wear but you know what they say: "No Pain, No Gain". It's here, it's there, it's everywhere! Suddenly Americans are seeing Skinnies in every store. Almost all denim brands offer at least one version of a skinny, cigarette, or super straight. There are other jeans out there, but these are the ones that are on the top of everyone's list. Stores are pushing the new look, and everyone from fashion editors to bloggers are writing about this new trend. Early in the year news reports are varied, predicting that this is a style that just won't catch on with mainstream America. But by the fall season you can get your skinny fix everywhere from the trendiest boutiques to the local discount store. The skinny is definitely at the peak of popularity right now.

How long will the style last? What's next? Let's look to London and see, is that a wide leg jean?

The Skinny Jean: A Brief History

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Music History - Hip Hop, Rap, R&B

In the early 1970s, the cultural movement of hip hop music was born. Hip hop's fast paced music style is made of two parts; the rhythmic delivery of rap and the use ofinstrumentation by a DJ. Hip hop music also brought with it a fashion of its own, the fashion helped to represent this newly created music.

Hip hop music has its roots from West African music and African-American music. The first rap song to be put onto a vinyl record was, "Rapper's Delight", a song by the Sugarhill Gang back in the 1970s. This is when block parties started becoming the norm in New York City, which gave hip hop and rap the chance to explode in popularity. Hip hop's instrumentation came from funk, R&B, and disco, when combined together make this dynamic type of music. When the DJs at these block parties learned what the people liked, they began mixing these vinyl records and created music that played continuously with amazing transitions between
songs. Hip hop was actually created by a DJ named Kool Herc, a Jamaican that had moved to the United States with a style that consisted of mixing music by using two copies of the same record. Many of the poor Jamaican's in the town could not afford vinyl records, so huge stereo systems were set up so that many could here the rhythmic beats. These stereo systems were the kick-off for the beginning of the
evolution of block parties. So with the musical talent of these amazing DJs, with the use of vinyl record mixing, the culture of hip hop and rap music was born.

History

History of R & B

R&B, which stands for Rhythm and Blues, was the greatest influence on music around the world for most of the 20th century's second-half. Rhythm and Blues is a term with a broad sense, but typically recognizing black-pop music. This type of music was introduced to the world by artists' combining the music styles of jazz and blues. R&B is actually what was later developed into what we know as rock and roll. In the 1970s, the term R&B was being used to describe soul and funk music styles, which today we know it describes Rhythm and Blues. Along with being influenced by jazz and blues, R&B also had influences from gospel and disco music. Disco's downturn in the 1980s opened the door for R&B to truly take-off in popularity.

Music History - Hip Hop, Rap, R&B

Matthew Kellmer is a SEO specialist and content manager for ChasetheWeb.net. ChasetheWeb specializes in website programming, search engine optimization, and website design. HipHopWax is a music website dedicated to selling quality new and used vinyl records. Visit HipHopWax for more hip hop and vinyl record information. Information can not be reproduced or altered without providing a link directly to HipHopWax.com.

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History Of Hip-Hop

Hip-hop music or rap music is an admired and famous style or genre of music in the USA. This well-known music genre is made up of two components, rapping and record scratching. Rapping is also known as MCing and DJing, which comprises of audio mixing. These two main components combined with graffiti and break dancing form the four core elements of hip-hop.

Hip-hop was initiated as a cultural movement by inner-city youth, mostly Latinos, Hispanics, and African Americans in New York City, in the early seventies. The word "rap" was derived in the sixties, from a slang word that meant conversation.

History

Hip-hop has two main historical eras, the old school hip-hop era from 1970-1985 and the golden age hip-hop era from 1985-1993. The golden age of hip-hop began only when it entered the mainstream of music and it consolidated the sounds of the West Coast and the East Coast.

The origin of hip-hop music is from African American and West African music. Contributions of griots like The Last Poets, Jalal Mansur Nurriddin, and Gil Scott-Heron were significant in a big way for the advent of hip-hop in the 1960s. Hip-hop had originally begun in the Bronx. Funk and soul music were played a lot in block parties. In the beginning, the DJs at these parties began separating the percussion breaks from hit songs. They started realizing that these breaks were more entertaining and groovy. This technique had become widespread in Jamaica and had spread considerably in the New York community via the Jamaican immigrants.

Kool DJ Herc and Grandmaster Flash were the pioneers in the hip-hop industry and other DJs had extended the short percussion interludes of funk records and created a more danceable sound. As a result, remixes had become popular with the advent of mixing and scratching techniques. Many styles of hip-hop had developed in the golden age of hip-hop.

At present, hip-hop is enjoyed all around the world. In spite, of all the controversies created by hip-hop artists they are still growing in number. Hip-hop music is sold all over the world in stores and even online.

History Of Hip-Hop

Hip Hop provides detailed information on Hip Hop, Hip Hop And Rap, Hip Hop Music, R&B Hip Hop and more. Hip Hop is affiliated with Karaoke Music [http://www.karaoke-web.com].

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The History of New Years Resolutions

The tradition of the New Year's Resolutions goes all the way back to 153 B.C. Janus, a mythical king of early Rome was placed at the head of the calendar.

With two faces, Janus could look back on past events and forward to the future. Janus became the ancient symbol for resolutions and many Romans looked for forgiveness from their enemies and also exchanged gifts before the beginning of each year.

History

The New Year has not always begun on January 1, and it doesn't begin on that date everywhere today. It begins on that date only for cultures that use a 365-day solar calendar. January 1 became the beginning of the New Year in 46 B.C., when Julius Caesar developed a calendar that would more accurately reflect the seasons than previous calendars had.

The Romans named the first month of the year after Janus, the god of beginnings and the guardian of doors and entrances. He was always depicted with two faces, one on the front of his head and one on the back. Thus he could look backward and forward at the same time. At midnight on December 31, the Romans imagined Janus looking back at the old year and forward to the new.

The Romans began a tradition of exchanging gifts on New Year's Eve by giving one another branches from sacred trees for good fortune. Later, nuts or coins imprinted with the god Janus became more common New Year's gifts.

In the Middle Ages, Christians changed New Year's Day to December 25, the birth of Jesus. Then they changed it to March 25, a holiday called the Annunciation. In the sixteenth century, Pope Gregory XIII revised the Julian calendar, and the celebration of the New Year was returned to January 1.

The Julian and Gregorian calendars are solar calendars. Some cultures have lunar calendars, however. A year in a lunar calendar is less than 365 days because the months are based on the phases of the moon. The Chinese use a lunar calendar. Their new year begins at the time of the first full moon (over the Far East) after the sun enters Aquarius- sometime between January 19 and February 21.

Although the date for New Year's Day is not the same in every culture, it is always a time for celebration and for customs to ensure good luck in the coming year.

Ancient New Years

The celebration of the New Year is the oldest of all holidays. It was first observed in ancient Babylon about 4000 years ago. In the years around 2000 BC, Babylonians celebrated the beginning of a new year on what is now March 23, although they themselves had no written calendar.

Late March actually is a logical choice for the beginning of a new year. It is the time of year that spring begins and new crops are planted. January 1, on the other hand, has no astronomical nor agricultural significance. It is purely arbitrary.

The Babylonian New Year celebration lasted for eleven days. Each day had its own particular mode of celebration, but it is safe to say that modern New Year's Eve festivities pale in comparison.

The Romans continued to observe the New Year on March 25, but their calendar was continually tampered with by various emperors so that the calendar soon became out of synchronization with the sun.

In order to set the calendar right, the Roman senate, in 153 BC, declared January 1 to be the beginning of the New Year. But tampering continued until Julius Caesar, in 46 BC, established what has come to be known as the Julian Calendar. It again established January 1 as the New Year. But in order to synchronize the calendar with the sun, Caesar had to let the previous year drag on for 445 days.

Global Good Luck Traditions

With New Year's upon us, here's a look at some of the good luck rituals from around the world. They are believed to bring good fortune and prosperity in the coming year.

AUSTRIA - The suckling pig is the symbol for good luck for the new year. It's served on a table decorated with tiny edible pigs. Dessert often consists of green peppermint ice cream in the shape of a four-leaf clover.

ENGLAND - The British place their fortunes for the coming year in the hands of their first guest. They believe the first visitor of each year should be male and bearing gifts. Traditional gifts are coal for the fire, a loaf for the table and a drink for the master. For good luck, the guest should enter through the front door and leave through the back. Guests who are empty-handed or unwanted are not allowed to enter first.

WALES - At the first toll of midnight, the back door is opened and then shut to release the old year and lock out all of its bad luck. Then at the twelfth stroke of the clock, the front door is opened and the New Year is welcomed with all of its luck.

HAITI - In Haiti, New Year's Day is a sign of the year to come. Haitians wear new clothing and exchange gifts in the hope that it will bode well for the new year.

SICILY - An old Sicilian tradition says good luck will come to those who eat lasagna on New Year's Day, but woe if you dine on macaroni, for any other noodle will bring bad luck.

SPAIN - In Spain, when the clock strikes midnight, the Spanish eat 12 grapes, one with every toll, to bring good luck for the 12 months ahead.

PERU - The Peruvian New Year's custom is a spin on the Spanish tradition of eating 12 grapes at the turn of the year. But in Peru, a 13th grape must be eaten to assure good luck.

GREECE - A special New Year's bread is baked with a coin buried in the dough. The first slice is for the Christ child, the second for the father of the household and the third slice is for the house. If the third slice holds the coin, spring will come early that year.

JAPAN - The Japanese decorate their homes in tribute to lucky gods. One tradition, kadomatsu, consists of a pine branch symbolizing longevity, a bamboo stalk symbolizing prosperity, and a plum blossom showing nobility.

CHINA - For the Chinese New Year, every front door is adorned with a fresh coat of red paint, red being a symbol of good luck and happiness. Although the whole family prepares a feast for the New Year, all knives are put away for 24 hours to keep anyone from cutting themselves, which is thought to cut the family's good luck for the next year.

UNITED STATES - The kiss shared at the stroke of midnight in the United States is derived from masked balls that have been common throughout history. As tradition has it, the masks symbolize evil spirits from the old year and the kiss is the purification into the new year.

NORWAY - Norwegians make rice pudding at New Year's and hide one whole almond within. Guaranteed wealth goes to the person whose serving holds the lucky almond.

Chinese New Year

Except for a very few number of people who can keep track of when the Chinese New Year should be, the majority of the Chinese today have to rely on a typical Chinese calendar to tell it. Therefore, you cannot talk of the Chinese New Year without mentioning the Chinese calendar at first.

A Chinese calendar consists of both the Gregorian and lunar-solar systems, with the latter dividing a year into twelve month, each of which is in turn equally divided into thirty- nine and a half days. The well-coordinated dual system calendar reflects the Chinese ingenuity.

There is also a system that marks the years in a twelve-year cycle, naming each of them after an animal such as Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Boar. People born in a particular year are believed to share some of the personalities of that particular animal.

The History of New Years Resolutions

Gary Ryan Blair is the inspiration behind Got Resolutions - http://GotResolutions.com

Got Resolutions was founded on the premise, that a single resolution can positively and profoundly create lasting change in your life and help to make the world a better place.

To learn more, visit http://GotResolutions.com

Gary can be reached for media requests, television or radio appearances and speaking services at 877-462-5748 or by sending an email to Gary@GoalsGuy.com

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Toyota Hilux Engine - A Brief History

The Toyota Hilux engine has changed many times since 1968 when the Hilux first debuted. Back then, it was powered by a small, 1.5 litre 4-cylinder. It has since evolved many times over with some models maintaining a 4-cylinder engine although now they're bigger, more powerful and even turbo or diesel powered (or both) while some models made a jump to larger displacement V6 engines. This article will provide a brief timeline into the history of the Toyota Hilux engine.

Toyota R Engine

History

The R engine was the first family of engines to grace the Toyota Hilux. The R engine was a 4-cylinder petrol (gasoline) that was used in various forms from 1968 to 1995. The 2R, 3R, 8R, 8R-C, 8R-E, 12R, 18R, 18R-C, 18R-E, 20R, 22R, 22R-E, and 22R-TE were all the variations of the R family of engines to be used in the Hilux. In the beginning, the 2R was a 1.5 litre that grew and had various factory modifications through the 2.4 litre 22R-E used in 1995. The 22R has a reputation as one of the best Toyota Hilux engine ever used for longevity and reliability of easily being able to clock 500,000 kilometers (300,000 miles).

Toyota VZ Engine

The VZ was the first family of V6 engines ever used in the Toyota Hilux. The VZ engine ran on petrol (gasoline) and all versions featured electronic fuel injection. The Hilux made use of the 3VZ from 1988 to 1995 at which point it used the 5VZ. Displacement increased from 3.0 to 3.4 litres and power jumped from 112 kW (150 hp) to 142 (190 hp). The 5VZ (or the 5VZ-FE to be exact) has been touted as the best V6 Toyota Hilux engine ever used for its reliability, light weight, and excellent fuel economy. Hilux owners with the 3VZ engine often seek out a 5VZ to install rather than rebuilding or replacing a 3VZ with problems or high kilometers.

Toyota RZ Engine

In 1996, some models of Hilux went back to 4-cylinders with the RZ. The RZ was a family of 4-cylinder engines that consisted of the 1RZ-E, 2RZ-FE and 3RZ-FE. Their displacements were 2.0 litres, 2.4 litres, and 2.7 litres respectively and they produced 78 kW (105 hp), 106 kW (142 hp), and 112 kW (150 hp) also respectively. The 1RZ saw limited production mostly in Japan and select parts of Asia. The 2RZ first came to life in 1995 and ceased production in 2004 (2004 being the last model year this engine was used in a Hilux). Like the 2RZ, the 3RZ also came to life in 1995 and it's still in use to this day.

Toyota Hilux Engine - A Brief History

You can review a thorough history of the Toyota Hilux engine as well as gain knowledge for reading Toyota Hilux engine numbers and it's also recommended to read about all diesel and petrol (gasoline) Hilux engines that Toyota used from 1968 to present.

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The History of Pizza Hut

The history of Pizza Hut began in 1958 when Frank and Dan Carney opened the first store in Wichita Kansas. Frank and Dan were brothers and best friends. In 1958, they asked their mother to borrow 600.00 and they successfully started the now world renowned restaurant called Pizza Hut. The brothers decided that they wanted the word pizza in the name of the restaurant and since the place itself reminded them of a hut, they came up with Pizza Hut. They based their business on quality and customer service and proved to succeed with both.

In 1964, the brothers decided to change the look of Pizza Hut and they erected the buildings that are universally recognized and related to the Pizza Hut name. In 1970, the history of Pizza Hut made a huge move. Pizza Hut was now publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1973, Pizza Hut opened its first doors off of American soil. Japan, England, and Canada all housed the first of the international Pizza Hut businesses. In 1977 a huge company named Pepsico merged with Pizza Hut and Frank Carney still remained the leader even with the merged companies. He decided in 1980 it was his time to leave and pursue other personal goals and opportunities. By 1986, there were one hundred restaurants in the United Kingdom and five thousand establishments world wide. The business was really starting to flourish after pan pizza got introduced six years earlier.

History

The early 90's consisted of many delivery and restaurant stores opening throughout the United Kingdom and Russia. In 1994 there were over ten thousand Pizza hut open for business world wide. In 1997, PepsiCo decided to focus solely on their drinks business (Pepsi) which resulted in the foundation of Tricon Global Restaurants. Tricon Global Restaurants is known today as the largest restaurant brand in the World. Sicilian pizza was also launched in the United Kingdom in 1997 and proved to be a huge success. In the year 2000, Pizza Hut introduced a new type of pizza called The Edge. This pizza was very unique and unlike any other pizza available. It was a thin pizza with toppings all the way around the edge.

The history of Pizza Hut made a big step forward in 2003 when it was made public that 500 restaurants were now open in the United Kingdom employing a total of over 20,000 people. In 2004 the Big New Yorker Pizza was introduced to the public which proved to be yet another successful and desirable pizza. 2005 brought the launch of the bigger and larger 4 for All pizza. Just this year Pizza Hut came out with their garlic crusted pizza and a larker 4 for all.

Pizza Hut can now be found in 17 different countries and all of the United States. The company has became a world recognized symbol of good pizza. You can locate a Pizza hut in almost every major city in the country.

The History of Pizza Hut

Candis Reade is an accomplished niche website developer and author. To learn more about The History of Pizza Hut [http://thebestpizzaanywhere.info/the-history-of-pizza-hut], please visit The Best Pizza Anywhere [http://thebestpizzaanywhere.info] for current articles and discussions.

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